Social classes in North Africa until to the Roman occupation in 146 B.C

Social classes in ancient civilizations are fundamental to understanding the nature of ancient societies. This class system was responsible for societal movement and development. The interaction, conflict, and convergence of interests among these classes contributed to major civilizational shifts in human history, leading to significant developments in their respective cultural structures. Based on this, the study entitled "Social Classes in North Africa until the Roman Occupation 146 BCE" aims to clarify the nature of the various social classes in this important region, identifying their emergence, foundations, and characteristics through a single academic work. Social classes were not clearly defined, nor were there any unified laws or customs governing them. Society in this region was not highly stable, and the idea of establishing a unified state only emerged in the later centuries of the study period. Furthermore, the region was subject to settlement by numerous peoples. The study aims to understand the nature of these classes, attempting to identify their origins and beginnings, and their functional and structural development. It also focuses on the processes of migration and the exchange of interests among the social classes under study. The importance of this topic lies in its shedding light on the history and development of social classes in ancient North Africa, how these classes shaped the features of African society at that time, and the nature of the changes and differences in the role, power, and status of each social class according to the prevailing civilization. It also highlights that society in ancient North Africa was not limited to kings and their recorded history, but that other individuals also played a role in building the existing civilizations. One of the most important objectives of this study, and the reason for its selection, is to try to understand the nature of these classes, trace their origins and beginnings, and examine their functional and structural development. Furthermore, it aims to capture instances of overlap and movement of individuals between different classes. Another reason for choosing this topic is to compile all relevant information about the social classes under investigation into a single, comprehensive work. This study posits the existence of social classes within the societies of ancient North Africa. These classes played a role in maintaining a specific social and political order, whether local or through external settlement. The study's temporal and spatial scope extends from the earliest human settlements the Stone Age to the Roman conquest of Carthage in 146 BCE. Geographically, it stretches from the western reaches of Egypt in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Sahara Desert in the south. The study employs descriptive, historical, and analytical methodologies. Previous research has not specifically addressed social classes and their role in ancient North African society. All existing studies have focused on the social structure, as well as the political and economic aspects, without independently examining the role of individual members of African society within their communities. Because no rigorous scientific research is possible without sources, many books and periodicals were consulted as sources for this study. These included North Africa by A.F. Gautier; The Carthaginian Civilization in Ancient North Africa: Between Libyan Foundations and Influences by Abdel Latif Rkeik; and Ancient Libyan History from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest* by Abdel Latif Mahmoud Al-Barghouthi. In addition, foreign sources were consulted, including: Lapeyre, G.-G. & Pellegrin, A. 1942). Carthage Punic 814-146 AH avant J.-C.). Paris: Payot. Aounallah, S. 2020). Carthage: Histoire et archéologie d’une métropole méditerranéenne 814 AH avant J.-C. – 1270 après J.-C.). CNRS Éditions. The nature of the study necessitated its division into the following: The nature of the study necessitated dividing the research into an introductory section and three chapters, followed by a conclusion summarizing the study's key findings. The introduction comprised two parts: the first addressed the concept of "social class" in terms of both linguistic and technical definitions, as well as its significance in historical studies; the second examined ancient North Africa from geographical and historical perspectives—outlining its geographical boundaries and reviewing the region's major historical eras—thereby helping to contextualize the environment in which these social classes emerged. The first chapter is dedicated to the study of the upper class and is divided into three sections. The first section examines the ruling class, outlining systems of governance, categories of rulers, their key responsibilities, and their role in state administration. The second section focuses on the warrior class, addressing their social status, military organization, and role in protecting the state and expanding its influence. The third section deals with the priestly class, elucidating their religious and social standing, their functions, and their impact on religious and political life. The second chapter, titled "The Middle Class," was divided into two sections. The first section examined the merchant class, covering their commercial activities, their role in economic life, and their domestic and foreign trade relations. The second section was dedicated to the study of the landowning class, outlining the nature of agricultural land ownership, the status of landowners, and their role in economic and social activity. The third chapter addresses the lower class and is divided into three sections. The first section examines the artisan class, outlining the key crafts and industries as well as the status of those employed in them. The second section is dedicated to the class of free peasants, detailing their role in agricultural production and their socio-economic conditions. The third section deals with the class of slaves, their living conditions, the work they performed, and their status within society. In addition to the conclusion, which includes the most prominent findings of the research and a set of appendices related to the study. One of the key sources relied upon by the study regarding the rock art community is the book by Lakhdar Ben Bouzid titled Tassili n'Ajjer in Prehistory: Beliefs and Rock Art. This work helped elucidate the daily life, culture, and prevailing beliefs of the prehistoric era in the Tassili and Hoggar regions. The study also drew upon Fabrizio Mori’s Tadrart Acacus: Rock Art and Prehistoric Saharan Cultures (translated by Omar Al_Barouni and Fouad Al_Ka'bazi), which outlines the chronological stages of rock art_ranging from the era of large wild animals, through the Round Head and Pastoralist periods, to the Horse and Camel eras. The study specifically utilized the scholarly material concerning the Round Head and Pastoralist periods, as these fall within the study's defined timeframe. Regarding the ancient Libyan tribes, the study drew upon Selim Hassan’s Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt (Volumes I and VII). This work was selected for the Egyptian texts and inscriptions it contains_which address the relationship between Egyptian kings and Libyan tribes_and for the insights it offers into their political and social conditions. As for Carthage, the study relied on François Decret’s Carthage: Empire of the Sea (translated by Izz al-Din Ahmed Azzo), which covers the city's origins and historical evolution, as well as various aspects of its political, social, and religious life. Additionally, the study utilized Mohamed Miftah Saad Al_Baraki’s The Carthaginian_Greek Conflict from the Sixth Century to the Mid_Third Century BC for the information it provides on political, social, and economic conditions in Carthage and the impact of the Carthaginian_Greek conflict on the city's development. Regarding Numidia, the study drew upon Mohamed Seghir Ghanem’s book, The Numidian Kingdom and Punic Civilization, which examines the kingdom’s origins, the evolution of its political system, power struggles, and economic aspects. It also utilized Fathia Farhati’s book, Numidia from the Reign of King Gaia to the Onset of Roman Occupation: Political and Cultural Life (213_46 BC), which addresses the political and cultural transformations experienced by Numidia_specifically the transition from a nomadic lifestyle to urban settlement and the formation of cities. The researcher faced many difficulties in completing this thesis, including the difficulty of obtaining some sources that discuss this topic, the geographical remoteness of the region, which affected the nature of scientific communication with researchers there, and the need to rely on non_written sources such as inscriptions and drawings to obtain information pertaining to the early periods. In conclusion, we thank Almighty Allah for enabling us to complete this work, and we sincerely ask Him that it be knowledge that will be beneficial. He is the All_Hearing, the Responsive.